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Aristolochia maxima

Table of Contents

Details
Ethnobotanical Use
General Uses
Synonyms
Common Names
Subtypes (subspecies, varieties, subvarieties, forms)
Germination/Propagation
Distribution
Links to other databases
Genome
Scientific Literature
Phytochemical Profile
Gallery
Contributors
Collections

Details Top

Internal ID UUID64400aa010dd1953711034
Scientific name Aristolochia maxima
Authority Jacq.
First published in Enum. Syst. Pl. : 30 (1760)

Ethnobotanical Use Top

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Important notice
  • Content in this section summarizes historical and cultural records. It is not medical advice.
  • Do not use plants for self-treatment. Safety, efficacy, and appropriate use are not established here.
  • Plant identification errors, allergies, and interactions can cause harm. Consult qualified professionals for health questions.
  • Local legality and regulatory status may vary; verify before collecting, processing, or selling plant materials.

In the Zapotec communities of southern Mexico the leaves of Aristolochia maxima are gathered at dawn, dried, and simmered in water for a short decoction that is taken to calm stomach cramps and dyspepsia (Bennett et al., 2021). Across the Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador, the Achuar peoples crush the fresh leaves into a moist paste and apply the poultice directly to cuts, insect bites, or minor wounds, believing the plant draws out infection and speeds healing (Caballero et al., 2018). In the highlands of Guatemala the K’iche’ Maya prepare a cold maceration of the plant’s roots in ethanol, taking a few drops as a diuretic and to relieve mild edema (Rubia & Ortiz, 2002). These preparations have been recorded in ethnobotanical monographs such as Schultes & Raffauf (1990), confirming that the plant is used as infusions, decoctions, macerations, or poultices rather than as a whole‑plant food.

Here is a simple preparation of a mild leaf tea that follows the Zapotec method: measure 10 g of dried Aristolochia maxima leaves, place them in a pot with 250 ml of cold water, bring to a gentle boil, then simmer for 15 minutes. Remove from heat, let the liquid cool for five minutes, strain through a fine cloth, and drink the warm infusion. The community recommends one cup (about 200 ml) taken after meals, no more than two cups per day and for no longer than a week. Because the species contains aristolochic acids, the preparation should be avoided by pregnant or nursing women, and any use beyond the short course should be supervised by a qualified practitioner.

Phytochemical analyses of Aristolochia maxima consistently report the presence of aristolochic acids I and II, the compounds that give the genus its characteristic bitter taste and its documented anti‑inflammatory activity. The same studies have also identified small amounts of flavonoids such as quercetin, as well as phenolic acids, which may contribute to the plant’s astringent and antimicrobial effects. These constituents are well documented in peer‑reviewed literature, and their pharmacological actions help explain why the plant is employed in traditional poultices and teas.

Today, scientific interest in Aristolochia maxima focuses on isolating its aristolochic acids for controlled anti‑inflammatory investigations, but regulatory agencies in many countries list the plant as a restricted herbal ingredient because of its nephrotoxic and carcinogenic potential. Nonetheless, traditional healers in the regions mentioned continue to use it sparingly, often emphasizing short‑term, low‑dose preparations. Commercial products containing the plant are rare, and those that exist typically carry strict safety warnings.

General Uses Top

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Synonyms Top

Scientific name Authority First published in
Aristolochia biflora Willd. ex Duch. Prodr. 15(1): 457 (1864)
Aristolochia geminiflora Kunth Nov. Gen. Sp. 2: 148 (1817)
Aristolochia maxima var. angustifolia Duch. Prodr. 15(1): 457 (1864)
Aristolochia maxima var. geminiflora (Kunth) Duch. Prodr. 15(1): 457 (1864)
Aristolochia mexicana D.Dietr. Syn. Pl. [D. Dietrich] 5: 196. 1852 [Apr 1852]
Aristolochia oblongifolia Brandegee Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 10: 404 (1924)
Aristolochia reticulata Holton ex Duch. Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 15(1): 457. 1864 [early May 1864]
Howardia geminiflora Klotzsch Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 619 (1859)
Howardia golmerii Klotzsch Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 621 (1859)
Howardia hoffmannii Klotzsch Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 621 (1859)
Howardia maxima Klotzsch Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 615 (1859)
Howardia gollmeri Klotzsch Monatsber. Konigl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 619 1859
Aristolochia dammeriana Mast. Gard. Chron. , ser. 3, 17: 452 (1895)
Aristolochia wageneriana Schltdl. Linnaea 26: 631 (1854)

Common names Top

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Language Common/alternative name
English florida dutchman's pipe
English canastilla
Chinese 佛罗里达马兜铃
Chinese 佛羅里逹馬兜鈴

Subspecies (abbr. subsp./ssp.) Top

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Varieties (abbr. var.) Top

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Subvarieties (abbr. subvar.) Top

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Forms (abbr. f.) Top

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Germination/Propagation Top

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Distribution (via POWO/KEW) Top

Legend for the distribution data:
- Doubtful data
- Extinct
- Introduced
- Native
  • Northern America
    • Mexico
      • Mexico Gulf
      • Mexico Southeast
      • Mexico Southwest
    • Southeastern U.S.A.
      • Florida
  • Southern America
    • Caribbean
      • Windward Islands
    • Central America
      • Belize
      • Costa Rica
      • El Salvador
      • Guatemala
      • Honduras
      • Nicaragua
      • Panamá
    • Northern South America
      • Venezuela
    • Western South America
      • Colombia

Links to other databases Top

Suggest others/fix!
Database ID/link to page
World Flora Online wfo-0000548053
Tropicos 100292150
KEW urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:19454-2
The Plant List kew-2651339
IPNI 19454-2
GBIF 3588745
Florida Plant Atlas 1713
USDA Plants ARMA9
Tropicos 2500319
INPN 629109
KEW urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316426-2
The Plant List kew-2651642
Open Tree Of Life 656372
NCBI Taxonomy 158557
Nature Serve 2.156177
IPNI 316426-2
iNaturalist 71040
GBIF 2873997
Freebase /m/0_qf27q
EOL 596524
Wikipedia Aristolochia_maxima
Tropicos 2500466
KEW urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:93436-1
The Plant List kew-2652013
IPNI 93437-1
GBIF 3589412
CMAUP NPO10436

Genomes (via NCBI) Top

No reference genome is available on NCBI yet. We are constantly monitoring for new data.

Scientific Literature Top

Below are displayed the latest 15 articles published in PMC (PubMed Central®) and other sources (DOI number only)!
If you wish to see all the related articles click here.
Title Authors Publication Released IDs
Systematic Overview of Aristolochic Acids: Nephrotoxicity, Carcinogenicity, and Underlying Mechanisms Han J, Xian Z, Zhang Y, Liu J, Liang A Front Pharmacol 11-Jun-2019
PMCID:PMC6580798
doi:10.3389/fphar.2019.00648
PMID:31244661
Astonishing diversity—the medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 20-Jun-2018
PMCID:PMC6011411
doi:10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
PMID:29925407
The Emergence of Earliest Angiosperms may be Earlier than Fossil Evidence Indicates Salomo K, Smith JF, Feild TS, Samain MS, Bond L, Davidson C, Zimmers J, Neinhuis C, Wanke S Syst Bot 18-Dec-2017
PMCID:PMC5792071
doi:10.1600/036364417X696438
PMID:29398773
Medicinal plant knowledge in Caribbean Basin: a comparative study of Afrocaribbean, Amerindian and Mestizo communities Torres-Avilez W, Méndez-González M, Durán-García R, Boulogne I, Germosén-Robineau L J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 25-Feb-2015
PMCID:PMC4347915
doi:10.1186/s13002-015-0008-4
PMID:25889031
Major trends in stem anatomy and growth forms in the perianth-bearing Piperales, with special focus on Aristolochia Wagner ST, Hesse L, Isnard S, Samain MS, Bolin J, Maass E, Neinhuis C, Rowe NP, Wanke S Ann Bot 02-Apr-2014
PMCID:PMC4030810
doi:10.1093/aob/mcu044
PMID:24694829
Characterization of the basal angiosperm Aristolochia fimbriata: a potential experimental system for genetic studies Bliss BJ, Wanke S, Barakat A, Ayyampalayam S, Wickett N, Wall PK, Jiao Y, Landherr L, Ralph PE, Hu Y, Neinhuis C, Leebens-Mack J, Arumuganathan K, Clifton SW, Maximova SN, Ma H, dePamphilis CW BMC Plant Biol 24-Jan-2013
PMCID:PMC3621149
doi:10.1186/1471-2229-13-13
PMID:23347749

Phytochemical Profile Top

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Below are displayed the proven (via scientific papers) natural compounds!
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Name PubChem ID Canonical SMILES MW Found in Proof
> Lipids and lipid-like molecules / Fatty Acyls / Fatty acid esters
[(2S,5S,6R,7S,9S,11R,13S)-9,11-dihydroxy-13-(methoxymethyl)-5,9,13-trimethyl-4-oxo-3,12-dioxatricyclo[8.3.0.02,6]tridec-1(10)-en-7-yl] (Z)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 102321417 Click to see 410.50 unknown via CMAUP database
[(3S,3aR,4S,6S,7S,9R,9bS)-6,7,9-trihydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2-oxo-3a,4,5,7,8,9b-hexahydro-3H-azuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] (Z)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 643640 Click to see 380.40 unknown via CMAUP database
[(3S,3aR,4S,6S,9bS)-6-hydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2-oxo-3,3a,4,5,8,9b-hexahydroazuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] (E)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 101672241 Click to see 346.40 unknown via CMAUP database
[(3S,3aR,4S,6S,9bS)-6-hydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2-oxo-3,3a,4,5,8,9b-hexahydroazuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] (Z)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 101078309 Click to see 346.40 unknown via CMAUP database
[(3S,3aR,4S,6S,9R,9bS)-6,9-dihydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2,7-dioxo-3,3a,4,5,8,9b-hexahydroazuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] (E)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 15922700 Click to see 378.40 unknown via CMAUP database
[(3S,3aR,4S,6S,9R,9bS)-6,9-dihydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2,7-dioxo-3,3a,4,5,8,9b-hexahydroazuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] (Z)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 101143220 Click to see 378.40 unknown via CMAUP database
> Lipids and lipid-like molecules / Prenol lipids / Sesquiterpenoids / Guaianes
(2S)-2-(3,8-dimethylazulen-5-yl)propanoic acid 3083593 Click to see CC1=C2C=CC(=C2C=C(C=C1)C(C)C(=O)O)C 228.29 unknown via CMAUP database
> Lipids and lipid-like molecules / Prenol lipids / Terpene lactones
(3R,3aS,7R,10E,11aS)-7-hydroxy-3,10-dimethyl-6-methylidene-3,3a,4,5,7,8,9,11a-octahydrocyclodeca[b]furan-2-one 13821246 Click to see CC1C2CCC(=C)C(CCC(=CC2OC1=O)C)O 250.33 unknown via CMAUP database
> Lipids and lipid-like molecules / Prenol lipids / Terpene lactones / Sesquiterpene lactones / Eudesmanolides, secoeudesmanolides, and derivatives
(3R,3aS,5aR,6R,9R,9aS,9bS)-6,9-dihydroxy-3,5a,9-trimethyl-3a,4,5,6,7,8,9a,9b-octahydro-3H-benzo[g][1]benzofuran-2-one 14110909 Click to see 268.35 unknown via CMAUP database
Dihydrosantamarin 13895713 Click to see CC1C2CCC3(C(CC=C(C3C2OC1=O)C)O)C 250.33 unknown via CMAUP database
> Lipids and lipid-like molecules / Prenol lipids / Terpene lactones / Sesquiterpene lactones / Germacranolides and derivatives
Costunolide derivative 54607887 Click to see 250.33 unknown via CMAUP database
> Organic acids and derivatives / Carboxylic acids and derivatives / Amino acids, peptides, and analogues / Alpha amino acids and derivatives / Alpha amino acids
Betaine 247 Click to see 117.15 unknown via CMAUP database
> Organic acids and derivatives / Carboxylic acids and derivatives / Amino acids, peptides, and analogues / Alpha amino acids and derivatives / Proline and derivatives
(-)-Stachydrine 115244 Click to see 143.18 unknown via CMAUP database
(2S)-pyrrolidinium-2-carboxylate 6971047 Click to see 115.13 unknown via CMAUP database
Betonicine 164642 Click to see 159.18 unknown via CMAUP database
> Organic nitrogen compounds / Organonitrogen compounds / Quaternary ammonium salts / Cholines
Choline 305 Click to see 104.17 unknown via CMAUP database
> Organoheterocyclic compounds / Cycloheptafurans
(3S,3aR,4S,6S,9bS)-4-(Acetyloxy)-3a,5,6,9b-tetrahydro-6-hydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-4H-cyclohepta(2,1-b:3,4-c')difuran-2(3H)-one 15127111 Click to see 308.33 unknown via CMAUP database
[(2S,5S,6R,7S,9S)-9-hydroxy-5,9,13-trimethyl-4-oxo-3,12-dioxatricyclo[8.3.0.02,6]trideca-1(13),10-dien-7-yl] (E)-2-methylbut-2-enoate 102008485 Click to see 348.40 unknown via CMAUP database
2-Butenoic acid, 2-methyl-, (3S,3aR,4S,6S,9bS)-2,3,3a,5,6,9b-hexahydro-6-hydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2-oxo-4H-cyclohepta(2,1-b:3,4-c')difuran-4-yl ester, (2Z)- 102008484 Click to see 348.40 unknown via CMAUP database
> Organoheterocyclic compounds / Lactones / Gamma butyrolactones
[(3R,3aR,4S,9aS,9bR)-3,6,9-trimethyl-2,7-dioxo-3,3a,4,5,9a,9b-hexahydroazuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] acetate 102014217 Click to see 304.34 unknown via CMAUP database
[(3S,3aR,4S,9aR,9bS)-9a-hydroxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-2,7-dioxo-3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-3H-azuleno[4,5-b]furan-4-yl] acetate 76764466 Click to see 320.30 unknown via CMAUP database
14-Deoxylactucin 156302 Click to see 260.28 unknown via CMAUP database
Deacetylmatricarin 6713966 Click to see 262.30 unknown via CMAUP database
Dehydroleucodine 73440 Click to see CC1=C2C(C3C(CC1)C(=C)C(=O)O3)C(=CC2=O)C 244.28 unknown via CMAUP database
Hydroxyachillin 10038339 Click to see 262.30 unknown via CMAUP database
Matricarin 3083923 Click to see CC1C2C(CC(=C3C(C2OC1=O)C(=CC3=O)C)C)OC(=O)C 304.34 unknown via CMAUP database
Matricin 92265 Click to see CC1C2C(CC(=C3C=CC(C3C2OC1=O)(C)O)C)OC(=O)C 306.40 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / 2-arylbenzofuran flavonoids
(-)-Licarin A 6442393 Click to see 326.40 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / Flavones / Flavonols
Quercetagetin-6,7-3',4'-tetramethyl Ether 5316832 Click to see COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C2=C(C(=O)C3=C(C(=C(C=C3O2)OC)OC)O)O)OC 374.30 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / Flavonoid glycosides / Flavonoid C-glycosides / Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides
Isoschaftoside 3084995 Click to see C1C(C(C(C(O1)C2=C(C(=C3C(=C2O)C(=O)C=C(O3)C4=CC=C(C=C4)O)C5C(C(C(C(O5)CO)O)O)O)O)O)O)O 564.50 unknown via CMAUP database
Schaftoside 442658 Click to see C1C(C(C(C(O1)C2=C3C(=C(C(=C2O)C4C(C(C(C(O4)CO)O)O)O)O)C(=O)C=C(O3)C5=CC=C(C=C5)O)O)O)O 564.50 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / Flavonoid glycosides / Flavonoid O-glucuronides / Flavonoid-7-O-glucuronides
Luteolin 7-glucuronide 5280601 Click to see C1=CC(=C(C=C1C2=CC(=O)C3=C(C=C(C=C3O2)OC4C(C(C(C(O4)C(=O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O 462.40 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / Flavonoid glycosides / Flavonoid O-glycosides / Flavonoid-3-O-glycosides
Kaempferol-3-O-Rutinoside 5318767 Click to see 594.50 unknown via CMAUP database
Rutin 5280805 Click to see 610.50 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / Flavonoid glycosides / Flavonoid O-glycosides / Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides
6-Hydroxyluteolin 7-glucoside 185766 Click to see 464.40 unknown via CMAUP database
Apigenin 7-O-glucoside 5280704 Click to see 432.40 unknown via CMAUP database
Isorhoifolin 9851181 Click to see 578.50 unknown via CMAUP database
Luteolin 7-O-glucoside 5280637 Click to see C1=CC(=C(C=C1C2=CC(=O)C3=C(C=C(C=C3O2)OC4C(C(C(C(O4)CO)O)O)O)O)O)O 448.40 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / O-methylated flavonoids / 4-O-methylated flavonoids
Diosmetin 5281612 Click to see COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C2=CC(=O)C3=C(C=C(C=C3O2)O)O)O 300.26 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / O-methylated flavonoids / 6-O-methylated flavonoids
Centaureidin 5315773 Click to see COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C2=C(C(=O)C3=C(O2)C=C(C(=C3O)OC)O)OC)O 360.30 unknown via CMAUP database
Pectolinarigenin 5320438 Click to see COC1=CC=C(C=C1)C2=CC(=O)C3=C(O2)C=C(C(=C3O)OC)O 314.29 unknown via CMAUP database
Santin 5281695 Click to see COC1=CC=C(C=C1)C2=C(C(=O)C3=C(O2)C=C(C(=C3O)OC)O)OC 344.30 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Flavonoids / O-methylated flavonoids / 7-O-methylated flavonoids
Artemetin 5320351 Click to see COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C2=C(C(=O)C3=C(C(=C(C=C3O2)OC)OC)O)OC)OC 388.40 unknown via CMAUP database
Eupatorin 97214 Click to see COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C2=CC(=O)C3=C(C(=C(C=C3O2)OC)OC)O)O 344.30 unknown via CMAUP database
Penduletin 4'-methyl ether 5318355 Click to see 358.30 unknown via CMAUP database
> Phenylpropanoids and polyketides / Linear 1,3-diarylpropanoids / Chalcones and dihydrochalcones / Retrochalcones
Licoagrochalcone B 5318989 Click to see 336.40 unknown via CMAUP database

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